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★ TABLE OF CONTENTS ★
Introduction
Background and History
What is Fish Sauce?
Production Methods
Fish Sauce Throughout Asia
Fish Sauce in Vietnam
Traditional Dishes Using Fish Sauce
Consumption Trends
Cultural Significance
French Colonization
Collective Identity
Concluding Points and Takeaways
References
INTRODUCTION
“You have to taste a culture to understand it” (Deborah Cater). Vietnamese cuisine is a vast and vibrant landscape informed by unique culture, philosophy, values, and a rich history of interaction, migration, and craftsmanship. The gastronomic iceberg runs deep, with hundreds of interpretations for each dish, ingredient, and preparation technique throughout the peninsula. From the conventional to the strange, the subtle to the bold, and the traditional to the modern, Vietnamese cuisine is the broader reflection of a resilient nation that is scarce in resources, but abundant in strength, pride, and humility.
Dubbed the “national soul [of Vietnamese cuisine]" in both its historical and modern ubiquity, fish sauce (nước mắm) is a cornerstone ingredient in Vietnamese culture both overtly and covertly. A fulcrum of Southeast Asian culinary identity, fish sauce steadies the balance between earthy and smoky and salty and sweet, adding an indescribable depth and complexity to thousands of regional dishes. Unassuming and humble, yet pronounced and striking, nước mắm tells the gustatory story of a small, but mighty, coastal country in the Indochinese peninsula.
BACKGROUND & HISTORY
From the early days of ancient Rome and Greece, salted and fermented fish played a pivotal role in adding depth to the flavour profile of existing dishes. Bearing a striking similarity to contemporary Vietnamese nước mắm in preparation, composition, and taste, liquamen, a derivative of the Roman garos and Greek garum, were received much differently in the fifth century BCE than Southeast Asian fish sauce today. The line between delight and disgust was thin—and it remains thin—as archaeologists and historians believed the Roman mainstream was averse to the rather pungent ingredient (Grainger 2021).
"What? Do you not think that so-called garum sociorum, the costly extract of poisonous fish, burns up the stomach with its salted putrefaction?" (Roman Senator Seneca, quoted in Grainger 2021).
Garum was believed to have been a condiment purely reserved for the elite class of Rome in its strong flavour and pungent odour, similar to how modern “exotic” dishes, such as foie gras (duck liver), are often associated with an acquired taste, and therefore, luxury. A common misconception is that fish sauce as we know it today (a watery, amber fluid) is interchangeable with garum and garos, though these sauces are distinctly separate in their production processes, tastes, and appearances. While liquamen, a broth-like byproduct of gutting small, oily fish such as mackerel, sardines, and anchovies and fermenting them in salted barrels for up to three months, is most closely related to the modern nước mắm in terms of production process and taste, garum and garos, the original variant of fish sauce, is dark, viscous, and blended with blood and oil (Grainger 2021).
The development and popularization of fish sauce in Southeast Asia is believed to have been independent of its development in Ancient Greece and Rome, being a matter of dispute as its Asiatic origins remain largely unknown (Ruddle and Ishige 2010). Widely held as a Vietnamese invention with Chinese influences, fish sauce as we know it today has crossed far beyond regional boundaries and become one of the most defining flavours in Southeast Asian cuisine. While garum is no longer a mainstay in contemporary Italian cuisine, its legacy remains strong in the diverse uses of fish sauce's modern form today.
Mackarel, salt, herbs, and seasonings (primary ingredients in production of liquamen)
Traditional garum, a dark and irony tasting sauce made of mackarel; first form of fish sauce
An ancient Roman supper, depicting a man holding a bowl of garum.
WHAT IS FISH SAUCE?
Today, fish sauce is more than just any meal element for Vietnamese people; it’s a strand of history, practice, and tradition that binds families and communities together. Beyond its physical components of fish, salt, and water, the cultural anatomy of nước mắm reflects the history of a nation and people at the crossroads of independence and uncertainty. Boasting a lengthy production process and extensive quality control, the act of making fish sauce, from the ocean to the supermarket shelves, is a celebration of tradition, longevity, and sustenance. Here, we explore the forms and variances of fish sauce across surrounding territories and navigate the struggle between maintaining intangible heritage and adapting in the face of modernization and globalization.
Production Methods
In the simplest sense, fish sauce is made by fermenting small fish (usually cá cơm/black anchovies) in large watered, salted barrels, where they are left to marinate for up to three years, gradually getting pressed to yield the final sauce product. Following this years-long extraction process, the sauce is then packaged in glass bottles for purchase at local supermarkets. Popular Vietnam-based fish sauce brands today include 3 Crab Fish Sauce, Megachef Premium Fish Sauce, and Red Boat—all of which carry different backgrounds, notes, aromas, and potencies.
1920s Vietnam most frequently saw the production of fish sauce in small clay vessels over large wooden barrels, with hundreds of nước mắm tĩn (fish sauce in clay vessels) being a regular sight in premodern Sài Gòn. Preceding the popularization of glass and plastic containers as methods of storage for liquids, these tĩn were used to carry and transport nước mắm for over 60 years, starting with Confucians from the Duy Tân movement aiming to expand fish sauce production in the early 1900s (Ruddle and Ishige 2010). Inside these tĩn, anchovies would be periodically stirred and layered and stirred with salt, yielding smaller quantities, but bearing higher monetary value, as the process was much more time-consuming and labour-intensive than that of mass-produced fish sauce. Though this method is largely defunct today, the craft is nonetheless recognized as an intangible cultural heritage in its transmission through generations and small fish-sauce-making communities
The more popular method of traditional fish sauce production primarily manifests itself on the island of Phú Quốc, the capital of and home to over 200 years of fish sauce history and craftsmanship. Formally recognized by Vietnam's Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism as a national intangible heritage, the company remains one of few that maintains natural fermentation processes and avoids the use of additives, colourings, fermentation boosts, and preservatives (Hoang and Nguyen 2019). This sauce is characterized by a darker red-brown colour and saltier/fattier flavour to demonstrate its freshness and natural protein content. Anchovies are carefully cleaned and inspected before being placed in large barrels and mixed with salt, before undergoing an extensive fermentation and control process to result in a higher quality product, but longer production periods, smaller yields, and prices 54% higher than that of most household brands (Hoang and Nguyen 561).
As Vietnam’s economy and population grow, in tandem with the increasing demand for fish sauce globally, industrial production has become the driving means of the fish sauce economy. Modern, industrialized fish sauce, while more consistent and milder in both appearance and taste, oftentimes lacks the depth and umami that traditional fish sauce is characterized by. Added enzymes, preservatives, fermentation boosters, and artificial colourings paired with mechanical salting and mixing processes make for quicker turnaround times, more uniform flavours, and lower market prices (Hoang and Nguyen 2019).
In 2025, traditional fish sauce makers face the risk of government intervention as a result of the process’ unregulated nature and cost/time inefficiency. “Traditional fish sauce is free from preservatives as salt and high amino acid content helps preserve the liquid naturally. But industrial fish sauce—a mixture of diluted fish sauce and flavoring, coloring, and sweeteners—can’t be stored for long without preservatives,” says Nguyễn Thị Tịnh, a fourth-generation traditional fish sauce maker (Van 2019). “Such industrially made products can’t be called fish sauce at all.”
Amid the crackdown on smaller traditional fish sauce producers, the dilemma surrounding the preservation of cultural heritage and modernization grows more uncertain. Yet, in the unforgiving face of the current fish sauce economy, traditional practitioners want to make one thing clear: so long as the line remains distinct between the historical craft of making fish sauce and the modern state of its production, both procedurally and substantively, they will continue practicing their tradition.
Fish Sauce Throughout Asia
Despite Vietnam being commonly dubbed the originator of fish sauce in its cultural and economic roles, surrounding countries including (but not limited to) Thailand, the Philippines, and China have forged cuisines independent of traditional Vietnamese fish sauce uses!
THAILAND: พริกน้ำปลา (Prik Nam Pla)
In Thailand, the universal, all-enhancing sauce is called พริกน้ำปลา (prik nam pla), a fish-sauce-based dipping condiment (similar to Vietnam’s nước chắm) with Thai chilies, lime juice, garlic, and shallots. A staple flavour enhancer and seasoning in several savoury dishes, prik nam pla is most commonly eaten with fried rice, eggs, noodles, and papaya salad. Comparatively, Thai fish sauce has the highest proportion of sweet amino acids compared to that of other countries (Jiang, Yan, Zheng, Ou, Ren, Chen, and Chen 2021).
PHILIPPINES: Patis
The Philippines’ patis is often described as the strongest and boldest of Asian fish sauces, especially when paralleled with the lightness and sweetness of nước mắm. A byproduct of bagoong (fermented fish), patis is naturally obtained and skimmed from the fermentation process, not pressed and extracted in the way nước mắm is (Ngo, Trang, and Pham 2017).
CHINA: 鱼露 (Yúlù)
Last, China, the believed original inspiration for Vietnam’s fish sauce, is less known for its fish-sauce-heavy cuisine, with popularity at its highest in the Southern and Eastern regions of the country. Directly translating to “ready to be harvested,” 鱼露 (Yúlù) is a regional delicacy characterized by higher amino acid content compared to its Southeast Asian counterparts (Jiang, Yan, Zheng, Ou, Ren, Chen, and Chen 2021).
FISH SAUCE IN VIETNAM
American celebrity chef Anthony Bourdain once claimed, “The Vietnamese are a skinny people obsessed with food.” Characterized by heavy vegetable, seafood, and rice consumption, the standard Vietnamese diet is one reflective of the country’s geographical location and the simplistic coastal lifestyles of its early people. Accommodating and simple in preparation, yet fastidious and intricate in composition and consumption, the nature of Vietnamese food is ever-changing and developing, but fundamentally classic and recognizable (Marinescu and Le 2022). Vietnamese food is complex and dynamic, yet effortlessly palatable, with history, tradition, and folklore embedded in each meal through its diverse array of textures, scents, and flavours. Fish sauce, as the “national soul” of Vietnamese cuisine, sits at both the forefront and the fringes of Vietnam’s most iconic dishes. In observing its explicit and implicit role in dishes and meals on both individual and communal scales, we are better able to understand what inherently characterizes Vietnamese cuisine as Vietnamese.
Heavily Fish Sauce-Driven Dishes
Dishes where fish sauce is perhaps the most identifiable quality tend to create the most division when it comes to pleasing non-Southeast Asian palettes. With its tangy base, pungent aroma, and spicy bite, fish sauce is used as a dressing in the following dishes; in the same way that a vinaigrette is used to bring out the flavours of otherwise simple ingredients, fish sauce earns these dishes their national praises and makes its presence known by packing a signature punch. Driven by the sweet-and-tangy, salty-and-citrusy, and ever-so-umami piquancy of nước chắm (dipping fish sauce), the following dishes are some of Vietnam’s most popular fish sauce-forward dishes.
Hanoian vermicelli pork noodles (bún chả Hà Nội):
Smoked barbecue pork meets fresh herbs and vermicelli (bún) in this cold noodle dish native to North Vietnam. Rather simple in composition, with separate tableware holding lettuce and mint, cold vermicelli, and barbecued pork in a tangy broth, bún chả Hà Nội is far more than meets the eye. The broth, a concentrated mixture of fish sauce, vinegar, and sugar is the primary flavouring of this dish, with those who eat it often leaving a small pool behind in their bowls due to its potency.
Savoury crepe (bánh xèo):
A thin, sometimes beer-battered, coconut milk shell encases a trove of jicama, bean sprouts, herbs, shrimp, and boiled pork belly in this traditional Central Vietnamese dish. Directly translating to “sizzling cake,” bánh xèo is a dish that leaves you more famished after eating one. A light nước chắm is drizzled atop the dish to cut the smokiness and warmth, giving the otherwise heavy meal a refreshing and vibrant accent. Served with fresh lettuce on the side, bánh xèo is a texture and flavour paradise enhanced by nước mắm.
Broken rice (cơm tấm):
The most varied, yet simple, of the listed fish sauce-forward dishes, cơm tấm has the least distinct flavour when uncomplimented by nước chắm. Fractured white rice grains are served with the diner’s choice of pork ribs, shrimp, steamed egg cake, shredded pork skin—or perhaps even all the above! With this dish, the nước chắm is complimented by pickled carrots and daikon (đồ chua), adding a sour and fragrant kick to the sauce’s strong, fishy taste. Regional preferences are common surrounding this dish, with Northern palettes preferring saltier fish sauces, and Southern palettes opting for sweeter ones.
Unconventional Fish Sauce-Driven Dishes
In the case of most Vietnamese dishes, however, the presence of fish sauce is less detectable—more omitted—yet the spirit of the country’s food culture still lingers. When used as a flavour enhancer or salt alternative rather than a key ingredient or dipping sauce, a dish’s existing richness is increased tenfold with just an extra dash of nước mắm. Though many would be unable to tell at first bite, the phantom presence of fish sauce in the following dishes adds an undeniable Southeast Asian flair in more unconventional, and oddly, less fishy-tasting ways.
Bone broth noodle soup (phở):
The national dish of Vietnam would hardly be described as fishy or tangy, yet fish sauce plays a key role in enhancing the broth’s depth, umami, and overall flavour profile. Cutting the aromatic, herbal, and hearty qualities of the broth, nước mắm is used in place of salt in this iconic Vietnamese dish. Next time you head to a phở restaurant, check the condiments on the table—you most likely won’t find a salt shaker, but there most definitely will be a bottle of fish sauce.
Caramelized braised fish (cá kho tộ):
It would seem unlikely that seasoning a fish with more fish would yield positive results, but this classic Vietnamese comfort dish proves that notion incorrect. Directly translating to “clay pot braised fish,” cá kho tộ is a signature comfort dish from South Vietnam, characterized by a salty and sweet sauce and melt-in-your-mouth catfish meat. In this dish, nước mắm enhances the warm, homey flavour of braised fish and adds a signature Vietnamese spin on what would otherwise be a standard Western fish dish.
Fish sauce glazed fried chicken wings (cánh gà chiên nước mắm):
A more recent development in the world of Vietnamese fusion dishes, cánh gà chiên nước mắm is the simplest of the three unconventional fish sauce dishes, as far as ingredients go. Coated with garlic pieces and a sticky fish sauce-sugar sauce, traditional fried chicken wings meet Southeast Asian flair as Vietnamese flavours intermingle with Western textures. Served atop a bed of lettuce with sliced tomato on the side, the fresh qualities of Vietnamese cuisine don’t go unnoticed, even with the dish being a greasy finger-appetizer.
Did You Know?!
Fish sauce is often mixed into a paste with granulated sugar to pair with unripened Kent mangoes as dessert! In certain cases, this dessert is also served with spicy salts and seasonings to enhance the gritty texture and savouriness of the snack.
Consumption Trends
When looking at Vietnam’s fish market as per this figure (via Vietnam News Agency), fish sauce consumption is ever-increasing domestically, in tandem with industrial production. The rightmost pi chart displays the fish sauce market share of Massan (industrial) fish sauce and traditional fish sauce, with Massan fish sauce comprising the overwhelming majority. Further examining the implications of industrial fish sauce’s staggering market share, the nature of fish sauce’s intangible heritages (i.e, traditional production in vessels and barrels), and their future survival in the fish sauce industry are called into question.
The demand for fish sauce has only increased as Vietnamese cuisine has gained global recognition throughout the years. This figure depicts a positive linear trend in Vietnam’s industrial production of fish sauce from 1975 to 2016 measured in meganewtons (1 MN = 224,808.9431 lb)—a reflection of the growing consumer interest in Southeast Asian flavours and cooking techniques. As fish sauce continues to enter the mainstream, we should consider the implications of fish sauce exports on both Vietnamese and international economies.
★ CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE ★
For as long as history has been recorded, food has served as a medium of protest and activism. From food riots in pre-industrial England to tortilla protests in 2007 Mexico, it has never been a neutral resource or a mere form of nutrition; it is entangled with cultural, experiential, emotional, and social significance, informed by collective and individual histories that culminate to form complex relationships with the people that interact with it.
Fish sauce is more than just an ingredient and form of sustenance for the people of Vietnam; it is an extension of power, duty, identity, and belonging. Exploring the material and immaterial significance of nước mắm amidst French colonial rule, as well as through the core values of Vietnamese culture, fish sauce is to be understood as a symbol of resistance, strength, and national identity for Vietnamese people domestically and internationally.
The Period of French Colonization
Vietnamese society in the late 1800s to mid-1900s was solely informed by French imperial rule and colonization. Life under French rule was characterized by several things, from economic strife and political oppression to cultural marginalization and devastating class disparities (Cady 1966). In the midst of the colonial regime, Vietnamese nationalism grew to heights never before seen in the imperialists’ attempts to erase their heritage and cultural practices, particularly in the realms of language, land, labour, and food.
French colonists were never partial to traditional Vietnamese cuisine, much less the pungent scent and overwhelming fishiness of nước mắm. Having developed the cultural norm of avoiding Indigenous Vietnamese dishes, due to believed inferiority and contamination (Peters 2019), the French introduced a myriad of Western foods, such as baguettes and coffee, that led to the development of localized hybrid dishes such as the iconic bánh mì sandwich and Vietnamese condensed milk iced coffee (cà phê sữa đá).
In the context of fish sauce, however, the French particularly abhorred the ingredient, deeming it as “rotten” and “spoiled” when studying the fermentation and production processes. By the time the Vietnamese people mobilized against the French, from men to women, children to elderly, and rich and poor, a national boycott of French products ensued in the nation’s collective efforts to combat French barbarity: “Vietnam had no need for French opium, which saps the vigor of our race; for French alcohols and liquors which stupefy our intelligence; for French prostitution that makes our women adulterous… for French bread and condiments which are enemies of our national food, rice, and fish sauce” (a Vietnamese revolutionary proclamation, quoted in McIntyre 2012). Eventually rallying around fish sauce as a means of identity, rebellion, and an outright rejection of French rule/imposition, the Vietnamese people forged a unique identity outside that of their colonial existence.
Collective Identity and Broader Symbolism
Centering around the notion of Vietnam as a coastal society and the Vietnamese people as subjects of colonialism and a war-torn homeland, fish sauce simultaneously serves as a symbol of unity and individuality, and consistency and change. The life forces of Vietnamese people, as widely held by the domestic and international community are as follows: (1) the ocean, (2) fish, and (3) salt (McIntyre 2012). Fish sauce, a culmination of all the ocean’s products, provided a protein source for otherwise impoverished people, a flavour enhancer for otherwise bland meals, and a rock for an otherwise shaky existence. Today, fish sauce is consumed by 95% of Vietnamese households around the world, cementing its enduring legacy as not only a staple ingredient, but a cultural icon in its own right.
CONCLUSION
A culinary chameleon and symbolic saving grace, nước mắm is an integral element of the Vietnamese lifestyle, culture, and identity in far more ways than one. From humble beginnings to eventual triumphant glory and staggering growth generations beyond, the ocean remained a loyal companion and source of solace for Vietnam; through the intricate practices of cultivating fish sauce, its ubiquity in every element of culture, and its overarching themes of national pride and strength, nước mắm remains not just one of the defining elements of Vietnamese cuisine, but ultimately serves as an extension of the never-faltering spirits and resilience of its people.
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