Historically, the cannabis plant could be found extensively throughout South, Central, and East Asia used primarily for its hemp fibers in the production of cloth and paper. Use of cannabis for its psychoactive properties rose immensely in South and Central Asia with the mingling of Shaivite Hinduism and Tibetan Hinduism. Parallely, its use in East Asia waned significantly as shamanistic religions were becoming taboo and eventually replaced with Confucianism which had strict laws regarding psychoactive substance consumption (Touw, 1981). Mentions of tantric or ceremonial uses of cannabis in Hinduism can be found in the Atharva Veda; the fourth and later addition to the Vedic scriptures and was often cited alongside soma (another psychoactive substance used in Vedic rituals) among five sacred plants in Vedic tradition. These plants were tulsi (holy basil), neem, chandan (sandalwood), soma, and bhaang. It was often referred to as “source of happiness”, “joy giver” and “liberator”. While initially it was thought that soma and bhaang were interchangeable, modern research suggests that soma was a hallucinogen, most likely a mushroom of some kind (Pollan, 2003). In addition to the Vedas, mentions of bhaang can be found in the Puranas (ancient Hindu texts that serve as a repository of religious, mythological, and historical knowledge dating back to the 4th century). Most prevalent, however, is the association of cannabis with the Hindu god Shiva. Known as the patron of meditation, Shiva is said to have embodied a lifestyle of asceticism, and had a deep connection with nature. It is believed that Shiva, during his deep meditative states, consumed cannabis to aid in his meditation and to experience spiritual enlightenment (Bhattacharjee, 2020). One particular myth details the churning of the cosmic ocean (Samudra Manthan) by the gods and demons to obtain the elixir of immortality (amrita). During this process, various divine beings and objects emerged from the ocean, including the Halahala poison. To save the universe from destruction, Shiva consumed the poison, but to alleviate its effects, he also consumed cannabis (Kramrisch, 1981). Many sadhus (religious ascetics) that worship Shiva consume or smoke cannabis today to achieve a similar spiritual enlightenment. 

Today, cannabis in edible form is often made available in temples during religious festivals such as Mahashivratri (a day of devotion towards Shiva), Holi (festival of spring and colors), or Kumbh Mela (conclusion of religious pilgrimage). It can also be purchased at government approved shops.  While cannabis is consumed during religious festivals such as Holi or Maha Shivratri, it is important to highlight the distinction between recreational and ritual consumption even in religious contexts. Much of the cannabis consumed in these festivals is for enjoyment and enhancing the celebratory experience. When consumed by religious devotees, it is often smoked (elaborated upon later in the paper) and used primarily to enhance meditation and spiritual practices.

India’s connection to cannabis carries through the alternative medicinal tradition of ayurveda. It is considered to have a range of medicinal properties including analgesic (pain-relieving), anti-inflammatory, sedative, and antispasmodic effects. Ayurveda categorizes individuals into different body types or constitutions known as doshas (Vata, Pitta, and Kapha). Cannabis is thought to have the potential to balance certain doshas, particularly Vata dosha, which is associated with movement and can become imbalanced, leading to conditions like anxiety, insomnia, and nervous disorders. The calming and grounding effects of cannabis are believed to help pacify excessive Vata. It prioritizes an interconnectedness of mind and body in maintaining wellness. The use of cannabis in ayurveda centered around calming the mind, reducing stress and anxiety, as well as promoting mental clarity and relaxation (Wujastyk, 2002) (Russo, 2005). In addition to rebalancing of doshas, cannabis has also been used historically for respiratory issues such as phlegm, persistent coughs, and asthmatic conditions. Furthermore, cannabis was utilized to enhance digestion and stimulate appetite. It was prescribed for individuals experiencing digestive disorders, poor appetite, or absorption issues. Cannabis was thought to kindle the digestive fire (agni), improve nutrient absorption, and alleviate symptoms of gastrointestinal discomfort. The plant was typically prepared and administered in various forms, including decoctions (boiling of the plant material), infusions, powders, and oils, depending on the desired therapeutic effect and mode of delivery. These preparations were often combined with other herbs, spices, or carrier oils to enhance efficacy and mitigate potential side effects (Tavhare & Acharya, 2016).What is particularly interesting about the use of cannabis in Ayurvedic medicine is that it was often used in tandem with other ingredients thought to dampen or cancel out its psychoactive properties. These ingredients include honey, peppercorn, and cinnamon. While cannabis was esteemed for its medicinal properties in ancient Ayurveda, its use was approached with reverence, caution, and respect for its potency. Ayurvedic physicians emphasized the importance of individualized treatment plans, considering factors such as the patient's constitution (prakriti), doshic imbalances, and overall health status when prescribing cannabis-based remedies (Wujastyk, 2002).

1. Hashish (Hash or Charas): This refers to dry cannabis resin, which can vary in color from light brown to almost black. It is typically smoked and contains highly concentrated amounts of THC. Historically, it was often collected by farm workers wearing a leather suit, walking through and making contact with the cannabis crop. As the plants brushed across their suits, resin would be deposited. This resin would then be scraped up, rolled into little pellets and then sold (Bhattacharjee, 2020). 

2. Hash oil is obtained by extracting THC from hashish or marijuana into oil. It can appear as clear pale yellow, green, brown, or black. Hash oil can be smoked or consumed orally. This method is considerably less common and a more modern development (Bhattacharjee, 2020). 

3. Ganja refers to the buds and flowering tops of the female cannabis plant. It is usually rust-green in color and is smoked. This is the primary mode of consumption for ascetics along with charas. Part of ascetic ritual includes fasting which makes edible forms of cannabis unavailable (Bhattacharjee, 2020). 

4. Bhang paste: Bhang paste consists of the large leaves and stems of the cannabis plant that are ground into a smooth paste. It has a dark green color and is often mixed with food items for consumption, rather than smoked (Bhattacharjee, 2020).

In the early 19th century, the British Empire began a systematic approach to bring in revenue from cannabis production and trade within its South Asian territories. This marked a significant shift from the previous scattered cultivation of cannabis, as the British started imposing stronger control over its production. The region of Naogaon in eastern Bengal emerged as the center for cannabis growth and cultivation. Over time, the British administration shifted from just extracting profits to direct control, prompting socio-economic changes in Naogaon. Peasants had to face oppressive levels of debt and organized themselves into the Naogaon Ganja Cultivators’ Cooperative Society Ltd. in 1917 (Chattopadhyaya, 2018). This allowed them to gain a monopoly over sales and utilize profits for local benefit. As these movements took place, societal perceptions of cannabis began to transform, with marginalized groups like lower-caste farmers attributing new cultural meanings to it as it improved living conditions and provided people with more financial security.  However, British authorities eventually implemented prohibitive measures against cannabis, influenced by the resistance shown by influential cooperatives like in Naogaon (Chattopadhyaya, 2018). 

However, in recent years, there has been a shift towards more progressive attitudes and policies regarding cannabis. Some states in India have begun to explore the potential benefits of legalizing medical cannabis, recognizing its therapeutic value in treating various health conditions such as chronic pain, epilepsy, and cancer. Additionally, there has been a growing debate about the potential economic and social benefits of regulating and taxing the cannabis industry (Ransing, 2022).