Exploring Thai cuisine is like setting off on an expedition to investigate the flavors and spices that have been incorporated and carefully selected to represent the country’s diverse historical and cultural influences on food over the past millennia. The flavor profile of modern Thai cuisine is unique, utilizing a blend of different spices, techniques, and ingredients to help each dish shine. However, to understand what makes Thai cuisine what it is known for today, it is important to explore the history of the development of Thai cuisine. This paper will explore the rich history behind the evolution of Thai cuisine, and bring attention to the significance that other cultures had in this evolution. Thai cuisine would not be what it is today without the influence of other cultures, bringing in the incorporation of new techniques, spices, and dishes to enhance and create new Thai dishes. The different temporal eras of Thailand brought about new changes and progress in Thai cooking. The major cultures this paper will focus on, in the development of Thai cuisine are India, China, and Europe, and this paper will explore their impact throughout Thai culinary history. Thai cuisine has taken a blend of these cultures and many more to create its own unique flavor identity that is so widely popular in so many different countries today. 

But before diving into the rich history of Thai cuisine, it is important to understand why this historical exploration is significant. Thai cuisine is arguably one of the most popular food choices when people decide what to eat. According to CNN Travel’s list of “The World’s 50 best foods,” Massaman curry was ranked number 1, with Tom Yum Goong ranking 8th (Smith 2017). This rise in the popularity of Thai cuisine can be attributed to many factors. A unique flavor profile that is the combination of sweet, sour, salty, and spicy flavors into a single dish, helps increase the appeal to consumers. With the use of fresh herbs and healthy ingredients, there are also potential health benefits to the consumption of Thai foods too. Furthermore, with Thailand being a popular tourist destination and the rise in social media usage, it becomes inherent that Thai food will also rise in popularity. This increase in awareness and curiosity to try Thai cuisine has increased the accessibility of Thai food to other nations. According to a report by the Royal Thai Embassy, approximately 50% of all Thai restaurants outside of Thailand are located in the US and Canada, showcasing their popularity in the Western world (Washington, D.C. 2017). With its widespread popularity, it is important to know the deep history that allowed Thai cuisine to become what it is today. Especially for myself, who is from that culture, it is important to know and understand the history of the food that I grew up with. It is a way to pay homage to and show respect to my own culture, and the culture that has helped shape Thai cuisine into what it is today. I believe this exploration will provide me and others with a better appreciation of the complexity and history of the spices, techniques, and ingredients that go into making a Thai dish.

Before exploring how India, China, and Europe helped shape Thai cuisine, a brief overview of the historical Thai eras can help to timeline the progress of Thai culture. Thai culinary history is rich and diverse that spans many centuries, reflecting the various cultural and geographic influences on the country. The earliest forms of influence can be traced back to the 3rd century with minimal trade occurring from neighboring countries and regions. Countries such as China, India, and Malaysia have already begun exerting some influence on the spices and techniques used to create dishes in Thailand. However, during this period, the development of Thai cuisine mainly remained localized, and the incorporation of other cultures is still limited. 

The first big development in Thai cuisine can be tied to the Sukhothai Era (1238-1438 CE). Also known as the ‘Golden Age’ of Thai cuisine, this era saw the prevalence of herbs and spices in Thai cooking. Partly due to the establishment of Sukhothai as a major political and cultural center in Thailand, the region saw an increase in trade from neighboring countries such as China, India, and Vietnam (Flandrin & Montanari, 2013, p. 508). The use of fresh herbs and spices included lemongrass, galangal, and kaffir lime leaves adding a unique flavor and aroma to Thai dishes (Davidson, 2014, p. 28). Notably, during this period, Sukhothai saw an increase in immigration from China, which played a significant role in expanding Thai cuisine. 

Following the Sukhothai Era, emerged the Ayutthaya Era (1351-1767 CE). This period in Thai culinary history marked the boom in trade from Western cultures to Thailand. During this period, the translocation of many spices from India found its way into the kingdom of Ayutthaya. Additionally, due to more established trade routes from Europe to South East Asia, Thai cuisine found itself having more access to new spices and culinary expertise which it could draw from to continue the growth of Thai cuisine. A major European country that played a large role was Portugal (Thompson, 2010). Furthermore, this era saw the emergence of Thai street food. Growing cities and markets paved the way for quick and convenient food, giving rise to street vendors selling a variety of snacks and quick-to-make foods. 

The Ayutthaya Era ended with the rise of the Rattanakosin Era (1782 - Present). King Rama IV and King Rama V’s appreciation of food and culinary expertise helped to continue the evolution of Thai cuisine. The introduction of Western-style utensils also helped by impacting the types of food eaten. This period also saw an increase in the immigration of Indians into Thailand. This allowed Thailand to become a place for experimentation within the culinary sphere, leading to the creation of many dishes we enjoy today like Pad Thai and Massaman Curry (Davidson, 2002, p. 217). This Era extends to the modern day where we can continue to see the evolution of Thai cuisine with a rise in the popularity of fusion foods, where the combination of even more diverse cultures clash within a dish to make a new subset of cuisine. 

It is undeniable the large contribution that India and Indian culture has had to the development of Thai cuisine. With a relatively near geographic location to Thailand, India has held a relatively large influence on Thai culture and its cuisine. This regionalism would have aided in the development of trade between these two nations. The Bay of Bengal serves as the pathway for trade between the two countries to occur. Furthermore, the two countries are also connected by the silk route, adding to more trade between the two. The trade between these two countries would have been affected by weather conditions, especially through sea-route. Tropical monsoons would have helped shape the process of trade between the two countries (Dorian et al. 2011, p. 547). In addition to being close in proximity to Thailand, the environment and weather of both regions are similar, especially both having tropical climates, which would have helped in the incorporation of Indian spices into Thai agriculture. 

Spices, one of the core elements that make up the unique flavor of Thai cuisine would not have been as developed without the trade that occurred between India and Thailand. The Indian spice trade brought many key spices to Thailand, which were incorporated into Thai cuisine. Indian traders introduced spices like coriander, cumin, and turmeric to Thailand during the Ayutthaya era. This trade allowed Thai cuisine to adopt these spices into a variety of Thai dishes, particularly curries (Panvisavas et al. 2016, p. 4). Furthermore, the health benefits that came with the consumption of these spices help to cement their use in Thai cuisine. 

Although curries had been present in Thailand before trade with India began, the immigration of Indians into Thailand helped to push and develop the curries we now see in Thailand. Particularly, the Rattanakosin Era (18th-19th Century), saw a large influx of Indian immigrants to the regions of Thailand. This increase in migration could have resulted from the political state of India, in its process of gaining autonomy from British colonial rule. It was during this period that curries like Massaman were developed. The Massaman curry is a prime example of a blend of different cultures mixed in Thailand to form a dish. Massaman curry can also be tied to Muslim influence as the name Massaman is derived from the word “Mussulman” - an old fashion term to refer to Muslim people. While the cooking methods and ingredients can be tied to Muslim influence, the use of spices, such as the ones listed above, can be linked to Indian influences as well. In addition to Massaman curry, Yellow curry was also heavily influenced by India. The use of turmeric, a spice brought by India, is a staple of yellow curry, giving it its yellow coloration and distinct flavor. Without the influence of India, curries - a large part of Thai cuisine, would not be as developed as it is today. However, curries are not the only subset of cuisine brought about by Indian travelers. Another large influence India has had on Thai cuisine is the presence of vegetarian dishes. This influence on vegetarianism in Thai culture can be linked to the spread of Buddhism, introducing the concept of non-violence towards all living beings (Nelson, 2010, p. 124). This concept led to the development of vegetarianism as a dietary practice in Thailand. Furthermore, the use of Indian spices and culinary plants such as coriander, cumin, and turmeric, also helped pave the path for vegetarianism to take root in Thailand. These spices added flavor and depth to traditional Thai dishes helping to create a larger variety of options that were satisfying for vegetarians (Panvisavas et al., 2016, p. 6). Additionally, the use of plant-based ingredients was heightened by ideas of promoting a healthier diet. Using plant-based ingredients promoted ideas of healing and health, helping to solidify vegetarianism as a ‘norm’ diet in many regions of Thailand.  

In addition to entrée-styled dishes, Indian culture has also played a large role in Thai dessert development. During the Ayutthaya period, Indian sweets such as laddoo and halwa were introduced into Thailand, and their influence can be seen in many 

Thai desserts today. Thong Yip, a popular Thai dessert made from egg yolks and sugar, is comparable to the Indian sweet, Jalebi. Furthermore, ingredients found in many Thai desserts, coconut milk, and palm sugar can also be traced to Indian influences (Chaiyasit et al., 2017, p. 1037). Khanom Chan is a layered Thai dessert made from rice flour and coconut cream. The origins of Khanom Chan have also been linked to Indian origins, particularly an Indian dessert called Barfi. Khanom Chan is thought to have been an adaptation of this Indian dessert, made during the Ayutthaya period (Kongsawat et al., 2017, p. 143). These developments further show how India has helped push forward the progress of Thai cuisine in many subsets of cuisine. 

India, throughout its history, has shown large influences on Thai cuisine, and Thai culture. From the incorporation of spices and culinary plants to the influence of a variety of curries and desserts, Indian culture has made a significant impact on shaping Thai cuisine into what it is today. Even the vegetarian lifestyle can be attributed to the culture India has brought to Thailand. The interconnectedness that rose from trade between these two countries is evident in Thai cuisine; with many elements of Thai cuisine serving as a reflection of the history between these two countries. 

Figure 3a. A map showing the Maritime Silk Road from Chinese coasts to the southern regions of Thailand. This maritime route would cut through the South China Sea, connecting China to Southeast Asia, and also serves as the beginning of the route to Africa and Europe. 

Figure 3b. Shows the migration of Chinese people into the Northern regions of Thailand, Sukhothai, and other Southeastern countries. 

Figure 4. A map showing the trade routes from Europe to Asia. The blue lines show the maritime trade routes Portuguese sailors undertook to South and Southeast Asia, helping establish trade between Thailand and the rest of Europe. 

Europe through trading, brought about a significant influence on Thai cuisine, especially during the Ayutthaya Era and the Ratanakosin Era. The introduction of Western ingredients and cooking techniques furthered the development of Thai cuisine, by allowing an even larger variety of dishes to be made. However, this trade relationship between Thailand and Europe was difficult due to the large distances between the two regions. Compared to both India and China, where trade began in the Sukhothai Era and earlier, European nations did not begin trade with Thailand until the 16th century when sailors from Portugal arrived in the region. These sailors established a trading post in the kingdom of Ayutthaya and thus began the import of European goods. This establishment brought about the arrival of other European nations such as the Dutch, English, and French, each establishing their own trading posts in Ayutthaya. (Takada 2007, 3). The trade relationship between Thailand and Europe has been maintained over the centuries, and today, the European Union is one of Thailand’s biggest trade partners.   

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