Refugee Populations in Schools

Population Background Information

A refugee is an individual outside his or her country of origin seeking refugee status based on a substantiated fear of persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, social group or political opinion. Upon arrival in the U.S., families are typically provided assistance with securing appropriate housing, receiving medical evaluations, applying for documentation, and locating English classes. Within the first 30 days of arrival, school-aged children are enrolled in school.

The percentage of refugee children in the U.S. has increased in recent years; in 1998, 13% of all refugees in the U.S. were children and by 2008 that percentage had increased to 37%. Including recent immigrants, these children comprise 20% of the overall school-aged population (BRYCS, 2013). 

Considerations for Speech-Language Pathologists Working with Refugee Populations

Age & Education Status 

Many refugees arrive with potentially incorrect birthdates recorded on their documents (due to calendar and cultural differences, the effects of malnutrition, etc.) and are assigned a grade according to assumed age. The child should be assessed according to skill level, but it may not be appropriate to standardize results if the child isn't represented by the norming sample of the test. Some refugee children arrive with limited or disrupted formal education. Although access to public education may be seen as a resettlement benefit, children face multiple challenges once placed in the U.S. educational system, including adapting to a new culture and language while participating and functioning with same-age American peers. Parents of refugee children may be unfamiliar and uncomfortable attending conferences and assisting with homework. Language, cultural, and socioeconomic barriers may further inhibit communication between parents and school professionals.

Language Differences 

Finding an appropriate interpreter in a language that has very few speakers in the area may be especially difficult. When using a language interpreter, inform them of the intent of the discussion with the client (e.g., speech disorder, language disorder) and always address the client directly, rather than addressing the interpreter. Familiarize yourself with the signs of language differences versus disorders in the language of interest, and gather pertinent background information regarding the client's language use (e.g., languages spoken in the home environment, length of time speaking different languages, etc.).

Health & Developmental Conditions

Refugees may experience post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, anxiety, sleep problems, and behavioral differences. Refugee children may have experienced physical, emotional, or sexual trauma, exposure to traumatic and violent events, and forced participation in violence.  

Cultural Difference Considerations 

The inherent behavioral, social, and psychological aspects of global cultures can be represented in part by the continuums described below adapted from Hofstede’s cultural dimensions paradigm. When working with refugees, the clinician should research where the culture of origin lies on each of these spectrums and how that aspect has shifted or been affected by becoming a refugee. It is important to note that the individual experience of being a refugee can vary greatly within larger cultural norms.

• Group vs. Individual Emphasis

This continuum describes the difference between being motivated by the welfare and achievements of the group or family versus the importance placed on individual success and rights. The effect on social relationships, preferences for therapy delivery, and conferences with family should be considered.

• Small vs. Large Power Distances

In small power distance cultures, individuals are seen as approximate equals regardless of formal title or status. In cultures with ingrained hierarchical structures, those in power are given immense respect and deference. Considerations for clinical work in small and large power distance cultures include the relations and discussions between family, client or student, and clinician. 

• Masculine vs. Feminine Approach

Masculine cultures tend to value assertiveness and ambition, while feminine cultures value quality of life and relationships. Ideas regarding gender roles and who may “deserve” empathy or help may affect intervention acceptance.

• Uncertainty Avoidance vs Ambiguity Acceptance

Cultures with greater levels of uncertainty avoidance are less tolerant of unknown circumstances and ambiguity. Alternatively,  cultures with greater ambiguity acceptance may accept unstructured and dynamic environments more readily. Considerations for clinical work regarding this differential include a preference for accepting or eliminating uncertainty and levels of regard for rules, policies, and procedures.

• Long-term vs. Short-term Orientation

This differential describes a focus on persistence, adaptation, and reward in contrast to valuing tradition, honor, and social obligations. Therapy decisions, acceptance of intervention, and family conferencing should be considerations.

• • Time Orientation

Refugee families may have very different concepts of time than those typical in the U.S.. The concept of time may affect understanding when to arrive at a meeting with educators, where such a meeting should take place, and the need to inform others if they cannot attend.

Classroom Strategies for Educators

• Become acquainted with English as a Second Language (ESL) classroom structure.

ESL classrooms may be a safe space for refugee children to learn adaptive skills and be surrounded by other children from their culture. Introduce yourself to the ESL teacher, and inquire about additional resources for working with specific populations.

• Teach school readiness skills.

School readiness skills may involve the understanding that children are expected to respond to adults and authority figures in the school setting. It may also involve teaching children how to handle school materials, such as pencils, notebooks, and books.

• Explicitly teach children behavioral expectations.

Refugee children may have limited knowledge of the behavioral expectations in a school setting. Explicitly teach what, when, and where behaviors are expected. For example, you may need to explicitly teach a child about sitting at their desk while completing schoolwork, standing in line when moving through the hallways, or what kind of play is acceptable on the playground.

• Use visual aids to make classroom rules and instructions more accessible.

Refugee children are often placed in classrooms according to their age rather than their past educational experience or English language proficiency. Use visual aids to support the student's understanding of classroom concepts, augmenting spoken English as an additional means of communication. 

• Use physical activities that are designed to demonstrate concepts and expectations.

For example, demonstrate a behavior, have the child repeat the behavior, then have the student act as the teacher to solidify behavioral expectations or concepts (e.g., raising your hand to ask questions).

• Create small group cooperative activities.

Cooperative activities can help teach children how to work with others and share classroom materials. Refugee children can also teach others about their cultural background in smaller group settings, empowering them to share their stories in a low-pressure environment.

• Implement a peer "buddy" system.

Giving a refugee child a "buddy" can be one way to ensure that he or she is following along with the class and can help provide some support for the child. Refugee children can be paired with other children in a mainstream classroom or with another refugee child with more advanced English skills who can help teach the child about the school. 

• Anticipate and help orient children to events that may be upsetting to them.

Some children may have a history of traumatic experiences. Awareness of this fact and anticipation of potential activities that may be upsetting is essential. For example, activities and discussions about fire alarms and how they are aimed to keep us safe may help alleviate anxiety around them.

 -Adapted from Refugee Children with Low Literacy Skills or Interrupted Education: Identifying Challenges and Strategies, Dr. Dina Birman.

 Minority Refugee Populations in the Portland Area

Some refugee populations in Portland have become established enough that their numbers have earned services specialized for their language and culture, such as those having arrived from Vietnam, Somalia, and the former Soviet Union, but some new arrivals are virtually the first to settle in this area from their country of origin. Listed below are some of the populations that are not as well represented in our area, but have been noted as having children in local school districts.

Bhutan

In the early 1990's people of Nepali ethnicity were forcefully expelled from Bhutan.  This ethnic cleansing was ignited by several coordinated bombings that the Bhutanese government accused people of Nepali ethnicity of executing.  This fueled the already existing fear that people of Nepali ethnicity were becoming a demographic and cultural threat.  The Bhutanese military forced people of Nepali ethnicity out of the country.  As a result, Bhutan lost ⅙ of its residents.  Nearly all of these refugees fled to refugee camps in Nepal.  

In 2008, the United States began accepting 60,000 of the 107,000 Bhutanese refugees living in United Nations refugee camps in southeast Nepal.  Since 2008, all 60,000 of those refugees have resettled in the United States.

Language Notes from Bhutan

There are over 19 languages recognized in Bhutan. All of them are members of the Tibeto-Burman language family, with the exception of Nepali, which is Indo-European. Nepali (or Nepalese) has 11 vowels - 6 oral and 5 nasal; and 27 consonants. In common with English: /m/, /n/, /ŋ /, /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/, /s/,  /ɹ/, /w/, /l/, /j/

Pronouns do not distinguish gender, but do follow differentiations of formality. 3rd person pronouns also denote proximal (near) or distal (far) relationship to object.

Cultural Notes from Bhutan

• Bhutan has historically been very isolated in regards to interactions with foreign cultures, as a result of its geographical remoteness.

• Religiously, Bhutan is primarily Buddhist, which is central to society.

• Approximately 23% of the population is Hindu, with a small minority (1.6%) of Muslims.

Burma/Myanmar and Rohingya Refugees

In Burma, Rohingya elders founded the Mujahid party with the aim of autonomous Muslim rule in state of Arakan after World War II. They were targeted after  the 1962 Burmese coup; many fled to Pakistan or Bangladesh. Ongoing conflicts began in 2012 between Rohingya Muslims and ethnic Rakhine in the Rakhine state. As of July 2012, Rohingya were not included on the government's list of ethnic races within the country, with the government stating that they have no claim to Myanmar citizenship.  About 800,000 Rohingya people are stateless.

The surrounding countries that many Rohingya have fled to, Bangladesh, Malaysia, and Thailand have not been welcoming.  The United Nations is currently working to find third countries for the Rohingya to settle in.  According to the 2010 US Census, 100,200 people of Burmese descent resided in the United States, as opposed to the 16,720 that lived in the United States as of 2000.

Language Notes from Burma/Myanmar

Official language of Burma is Burmese, English is taught as secondary language in schools.

Burmese is tonal, pitch-register and syllable-timed (duration of every syllable is equal). It is a member of the Tibeto-Burman family, a submember of the Sino-Tibetan family of languages. The word order in Burmese is subject-object-verb. There are language differences between written and spoken Burmese (written is more formal).

Phonemically, there are 35 consonants, and 12 vowels. In common with English: /p/ (plus pʰ), /b/, /t/ (plus tʰ), /d/, /k/ (plus kʰ), /g/, /ʔ/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, (plus m̥ n̥ ŋ̥), /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /h/, /ɹ/, /j/, /w/, /l/.

Pronouns are age-dependent and honorifics are used before a person’s name in almost all cases.

Rohingya is the language of Rohingya people of Burma. It is an Indo-European language, as opposed to Sino-Tibetan - ethno-linguistically it is related to languages of India and Bangladesh. Rohingya uses Arabic, Urdu, Burmese and Latin-Based Rohingyalish as writing systems.

Phonemically, there are 25 consonant phonemes, and 6 vowels. In common with English: /p/, /b/, /t/ (dentalized), /d/ (dentalized), /k/, /g/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /f/, /s/, /z/, /h/, /w/, /l/, /j/, /ɾ/

Rohingya word order is subject-object-verb.

The pronouns are designated: (Singular) 1st, 2nd, 3rd male, 3rd male/female, 3rd neutral, 3rd neutral

(Plural) 1st, 2nd, 3rd male/female near, male/female far, 3rd neutral near, neutral far

Cultural Notes from Burma/Myanmar

• Age is revered, as it correlates to wisdom and experience.

• Burma is primarily Buddhist, and their literature and folktales are greatly influenced by Buddhist and Hindu mythology.

• It is considered rude to touch a person’s head, and taboo to touch their feet.

• Within Burmese culture is the concept of ana (no English equivalent) - a hesitation or reluctance to perform an action for fear of offending or embarrassing the other person, thereby causing them to lose face.

Iran

The Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988), the Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait (1990), the Gulf War (1990-1991), and Operation Iraqi Freedom (2003-1011) have generated millions of Iraqi refugees. The United Nations estimates that 2.2 million Iraqis have fled Iraq since 2003.  Jordan and Syria are the main host countries for Iraqi refugees.  Since 2007, according to the Department of Homeland Security, 64,174 Iraqis have been admitted into the United States.

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees said that this is, “the largest long-term population movement in the Middle East since the displacement of Palestinians following the creation of Israel in 1948...Most [Iraqi refugees] are unable to return to their areas of origin because of the volatile security situation, the destruction of their homes, or lack of access to services."

Iraq includes a variety of ethnicities, religions, and languages. Iraq's current population consists of approximately 28 million people, 75% of whom are Arabs and 15% of whom are Kurds. Arabic is the national language. Islam is the predominant religion, and it is practiced by 97% of the population.

Of Iraqi Muslims, 60% to 65% are Shi'i Muslims and 32% to 37% are Sunni Muslims. Both Shi'i Muslims and Sunni Muslims share the most fundamental Islamic beliefs. The difference between these groups stems from political differences regarding who should take over leadership of the Muslim nation following the death of the Prophet Muhammad. Sunni Muslims believed that the new leader should be selected from those capable to take over the job. Shi’i Muslims believed the leadership should stay within the Prophet’s own family, or others appointed by God himself. As such, Shi'i Muslims follow the authority of leaders appointed by God rather than following the authority of elected Muslim leaders.

According to the Cultural Orientation Resource Center, psychological distress among Iraqi refugees is often prevalent due to the violence, torture, kidnapping, blackmail and harassment many Iraqi refugees experienced by militias and neighbors during times of political unrest. Even in countries of asylum, refugees report that they have experienced threats of detention and deportation, limited work opportunities, inhumane work conditions, local hostility, economic hardship, and continued threats from Iraqi militias (Cultural Orientation Resource Center, 2008).

Language notes from Iraq

About 77% of Iraqis speak Arabic. There are more than 15 dialects of spoken Arabic throughout the area between Morocco in the west to the Persian Gulf in the East. Dialects are defined by different geographical areas. The Arabic alphabet has 28 letters, with each one standing for a single sound. The letters and words in written Arabic are written or printed from right to left, in contrast to the orientation of the English alphabet.

The most notable feature of Arabic pronunciation is the presence of back or heavy consonants. Iraqi Arabic also has fewer vowels than English. Irawi Arabs tend to have difficulty with many of the English vowel sounds, because so many more vowel sounds exist in English. Other differences in pronunciation involve the Arabic r, which is trilled (much like the r in Spanish or Italian), and confusion between the English /p/ and /b/ (Cultural Orientation Resource Center, 2008).

Additional differences exist between the forms of asking questions in Arabic and English, involving differences in word order and the use of tone to indicatedifferences between statements and questions. The verb "to be" in present-tense sentences also presents challenges. In Arabic, there are no parallels to "is" and "are", so the Arab learner of English is likely to say "I Iraqi" or "what your name" instead of "I am Iraqi" or "what is your name".

Cultural notes from Iraq

• Iraqi Arabs are a community oriented culture, and the family is the center of life. An individual's social status is determined by their family's status within the community. Individualized preferences are less important than family loyalty and duty, with each individual striving to avoid behaviors or activities that may bring shame to the family unit overall. However, with modernization, individual achievement has gradually acquired a more important role (Cultural Orientation Resource Center, 2008).

• Iraqi Arabs are also a patriarchal culture. The traditional household consists of the male head of the household, his wife, their unmarried sons and daughters, their married sons with their wives and children, the man's mother, and frequently his unmarried sisters. The most powerful force in the household is often the man's mother. This family constellation is different than many American households, and it is important to know when consulting with the family in making clinical decisions.

• In Iraqi families, young children are adored and indulged (Cultural Orientation Resource Center, 2008). Older boys often attend the gatherings of the older men, learning about cultural values and attitudes through passive participation in these gatherings. Older girls are very carefully protected, and are encouraged to learn a variety of domestic skills at a young age.

• Iraqi refugees may also have a strong belief in fate and predetermined destiny. There is a strong belief that everything depends on the will of God, a belief that contrasts sharply with the American notion that people are largely in control of their own destiny. Dignity, honor, and reputation are also values highly esteemed by Iraqis.

• Because religion plays such an important part in the lives of Iraqi Arabs, some resettled refugees may be surprised by the number of Americans who do not believe in God, yet are well-behaved, accepted members of society (Cultural Orientation Resource Center, 2008). Additional areas of confusion for this population may involve the American need for invitations and advance notice before a visit, with an agreed upon time and place.

Darfur

The United States currently processes Darfuri refugees from several locations in Africa, including Chad, Kenya, and Ghana, for U.S. resettlement. Since 2003, up to 2.7 million Darfuri have been displaced from their homes in Darfur, a region of west Sudan, and hundreds of thousands have sought refuge in refugee camps throughout Africa (Cultural Resource Center, 2011). Many of these refugees were forced to flee as a result of a campaign of ethnic cleansing directed at non-Arab groups in Darfur.

In 2003, non-Arab rebel groups launched an uprising against the Sudanese government, accusing the government of favoring Arabs over the non-Arab ethnic groups. These rebel groups and their cause soon became known as the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) (Cultural Resource Center, 2011).

Since then, Darfuri civilians of non-Arab descent have come under attack from various government troops, nomadic militia, and rebel groups.

The conflict in Darfur triggered one of the biggest humanitarian emergencies in recent times, and the plight of Darfuri refugees has drawn international attention (Cultural Resource Center, 2011). The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) estimates that as many as 300,000 Darfuri have died in the conflict, and an additional 2.7 million people have been forced to flee their homes (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2007).

Many refugees coming to the United States have spent time living in concentration camps located near Darfur where conditions are dismal and theft, physical and sexual violence, and abduction are common problems (Cultural Resource Center, 2011).

Language Notes from Darfur

The most commonly spoken Darfuri languages are Fur, Massalit, and Zaghawa. Through an Arabization campaign, the Northern Sudanese forced the Darfuri to speak Arabic, one of the two official languages of Sudan, rather than their own native languages. As such, in addition to their native language, many Darfuri men speak Sudanese Arabic.

Cultural Notes from Darfur

• The term Darfuri is a geographical rather than an ethnic designation, and refers to a geographical region that encompasses a variety of ethnic groups.

• Islam is the primary religion of the region. However, traditional animist beliefs are frequently incorporated into religious practice.

• Polygamy is traditionally practiced throughout Darfur. A man may have multiple wives and dozens of children, all of whom are considered to be part of a single family. Note that this may not apply to less traditional families.

• Traditional Darfuri culture is also patriarchal, with little interaction between males and females in public life. Boys and girls commonly sleep in separate houses within the family's compound.

• Darfuri community life is also centered on an extended, communal family and leadership of patriarchs and elders (Cultural Resource Center, 2011).

• Darfuri culture is community oriented, with community members assisting friends and neighbors in raising children, providing advice, and resolving conflicts. Community elders are revered and sought out when important decisions must be made.

• Because of these strong communal ties, the notion of family extends beyond biological ties. This wider use of biological terms has created confusion for establishing legal relationships in the United States.

• It is also important to note that Darfuri families may at times discipline their children physically, and that it is acceptable for any adult to reprimand any younger member of the community.

• Children are autonomous in Darfuri culture and are commonly left unsupervised. These practices may conflict with traditional American views on parenting.

• The Darfuri also have their own forms of traditional healing through the use of boiled leaves and roots, which is important to consider when making decisions in a medical setting.