The following set of cognitive-based principles are supported by robust evidence from both experiment and classroom settings. Cognitive principles help support conceptual understanding and the successful completion of discipline-related tasks. These principles should be applied in curriculum design to facilitate the development of knowledge acquisition and critical thinking skills. However, unlike other research-based principles in the cognitive domain which depend on instructors for their implementation (ex: use of active learning strategies), these principles can be used independently by students to maximize their own learning.
- Retrieval practice (the “testing effect”): the ability to recall and remember knowledge increases if it is periodically retrieved. Retrieval involves accessing information, concepts, or mental models from long-term memory. In the process, memory traces are multiplied and strengthened, making subsequent retrieval of the same content easier. The act of retrieval solidifies learning, particularly when corrective feedback is provided. For retrieval to be effective, retrieval practice should be ‘spaced’ rather than ‘massed’ so that content is retrieved from long-term rather than short-term memory (see Spaced and interleaved practice section).
- Spaced and interleaved practice: studying information or practicing problems over sessions that are spaced in time (A1....A2....A3) results in better learning than if the sessions are grouped together, massed, into a single session or closely timed sessions (A1A2A3). Studying related concepts in an interleaved fashion so that one problem type is followed by a different problem type (A1B1C1B2C2A2C3A3B3) leads to higher learning gains than when practicing problems grouped by types (A1A2A3B1B2B3C1C2C3). Although spacing and interleaving can be separated into two different interventions, interleaving naturally results in the spacing of the same problem types. Therefore, interleaving and spacing practice are linked and often used together (A1B1C1....B2C2A2....C3A3B3). Although spacing and interleaving can mean slower initial learning, they result in both increased retention and better ability to discriminate problem types.
- Self-explanation: making sense of information such as expository materials (text and diagrams) or worked examples through elaborated questioning has been shown to improve problem solving ability and conceptual understanding. While self-explaining, learners 1) build knowledge beyond what is provided by making inferences to fill in any missing information, 2) connect what they are learning to prior knowledge, and 3) monitor comprehension (see Metacognition section).
- Worked and faded examples: non-experts, who lack mental models in a given discipline, employ ‘means-end analysis’ to solve traditional problems (ex: 'Solve for X’). In means-end analysis, students look at what is provided and what is asked and through trial and error find a solution path that fits an answer. Means-end analysis is not an efficient or robust learning strategy as it does not lead to effective schema construction (the extraction of underlying principles). When non-experts learn new concepts, it is more effective for them to study step-by-step solutions to solved problems (‘worked examples’) than to attempt solving problems. Worked examples are effective only when learners self-explain the solutions and when multiple, varied worked examples of the same concept are provided. Worked examples are most effective for non-experts (i.e. most of our students most of the time). Experts benefit more from attempting to solve problems than from studying worked examples.